Life After Childhood Brain Tumors: Understanding Long-Term Thinking, Memory, and Emotional Health in Survivors

Table of Contents

• Key Points
• Why This Research Matters: The Growing Population of Brain Tumor Survivors
• How the Research Was Conducted: A Systematic Review Approach
• Understanding Pediatric Brain Tumors: Types and Treatments
• Key Findings: What Happens to Cognition and Behavior After Treatment
• Proton vs. Photon Radiation: Comparing Treatment Impacts
• Newer Therapies: MEK Inhibitors and Targeted Treatments
• Inside the Studies: A Closer Look at the Research Data
• The Psychological and Social Toll: Beyond Cognition
• Clinical Implications: What This Means for Patients and Families
• Study Limitations: What This Review Couldn't Prove
• Recommendations: Practical Guidance for Survivors and Families
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Source Information

Key Points

• Pediatric brain tumors represent 20–30% of childhood cancers; five-year survival now approaches 75%.
• Proton beam radiotherapy offers better long-term cognitive and academic outcomes than traditional photon radiotherapy.
• Survivors frequently have deficits in processing speed, working memory, attention, executive function, and mathematics.
• Depression, low self-esteem, and increased suicidal ideation are reported, so mental health screening is essential.
• Craniospinal irradiation with protons produced cognitive scores averaging 72–85, indicating significant impact versus focal therapy.

Why This Research Matters: The Growing Population of Brain Tumor Survivors

Pediatric brain tumors—abnormal growths of cells within the brain or central nervous system (CNS) that occur in children and adolescents—represent one of the most challenging health issues facing young patients today. These tumors are the most common solid tumors in children and represent the leading cause of cancer-related death in this age group.

The numbers are striking. Pediatric brain tumors account for approximately 20–30% of all childhood cancers worldwide. They occur in about 1 in 2,000 children, and nearly 4,000 children in the United States are diagnosed each year with brain or central nervous system tumors. Globally, the incidence is estimated at 3–4 cases per 100,000 children per year, with variations based on region, environmental factors, and genetic predispositions.

Here is the good news: advances in diagnosis and treatment have dramatically improved survival. Over the past few decades, the five-year survival rate for children diagnosed with brain tumors now approaches 75%. More children than ever are surviving into adulthood.

But survival comes at a cost. The tumors themselves, along with the aggressive treatments used to fight them, can profoundly affect the developing brain. Survivors frequently experience neurocognitive impairment—difficulties with thinking, learning, and memory—along with treatment-related side effects and a diminished quality of life (QoL). These challenges affect academic performance, social interactions, and mental wellbeing, often for decades after treatment ends.

This systematic review, published in Frontiers in Neuroscience on May 30, 2025, set out to consolidate the existing body of research on these long-term outcomes. The researchers aimed to provide a comprehensive summary of current understanding and pinpoint areas that need further exploration.

How the Research Was Conducted: A Systematic Review Approach

The researchers followed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) guidelines, a rigorous, standardized framework for conducting systematic reviews. This approach ensures transparency, reproducibility, and minimizes bias in how studies are identified, selected, and analyzed.

The search strategy involved querying four major medical databases: PubMed Central (PMC), Embase, and Google Scholar. The investigators used a comprehensive set of MeSH terms (medical subject headings used to index articles), including "Brain Neoplasms," "Pediatrics," "Cognition Disorders," "Neurobehavioral Manifestations," "Child," "Survivors," "Cognition," "Behavior," "Prognosis," "Neurodevelopmental Disorders," "Challenges," and "Survivorship."

The inclusion criteria were carefully defined. Studies had to be:

• Open-access, English-language publications
• Focused on pediatric patients under 18 years of age diagnosed with brain tumors
• A minimum follow-up period of 2 years post-treatment
• Published in peer-reviewed journals between 2019 and 2024
• Focused on long-term neurocognitive and behavioral outcomes, or published as systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Here is the step-by-step process the researchers followed:

1. Initial search: The database search yielded 75 articles.
2. Duplicate removal: After excluding duplicates, 68 unique records remained.
3. Title and abstract screening: Two reviewers independently screened titles and abstracts. 25 articles were excluded based on the inclusion criteria.
4. Full-text review: The remaining 43 articles were assessed for eligibility.
5. Final selection: 14 studies were ultimately selected for the review.

To ensure rigorous evaluation and reduce bias, the initial screening was conducted independently by two reviewers. Any discrepancies were resolved through discussion or consultation with a third reviewer. Data extraction focused on key variables such as study characteristics, patient demographics, tumor characteristics, and neurocognitive and behavioral outcomes.

Understanding Pediatric Brain Tumors: Types and Treatments

Not all brain tumors are the same, and understanding the differences helps explain why outcomes vary so widely among survivors.

Medulloblastomas are the most common malignant brain tumors in children. They typically arise in the cerebellum—the region of the brain that controls balance and coordination—and can spread to other parts of the brain and spinal cord. These tumors are treated aggressively due to their malignant nature.

Craniopharyngiomas are benign tumors that develop near the pituitary gland at the base of the brain. Despite being non-cancerous, their location often causes hormonal imbalances and vision problems, and treatment can be complicated.

Germ cell tumors originate from germ cells and are usually found near the pineal gland or pituitary gland. These can be either benign or malignant.

Diagnosis of pediatric brain tumors typically involves imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans, along with biopsy procedures to determine the tumor type and grade. Treatment strategies often combine surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy.

The long-term effects of treatment—including potential neurocognitive and behavioral effects—are a major consideration in managing these cases. Some tumors are highly treatable with a good prognosis, while others, especially high-grade malignancies, are more challenging with a poorer prognosis.

Key Findings: What Happens to Cognition and Behavior After Treatment

The review synthesized data from 14 studies, each examining different aspects of neurocognitive and neuropsychiatric outcomes among pediatric brain tumor survivors. Despite variations in patient demographics, tumor types, and treatment modalities across the studies, several consistent themes emerged.

Survivors of pediatric brain tumors frequently experience deficits in multiple cognitive domains, including:

• Intelligence quotient (IQ) — overall intellectual functioning
• Processing speed — how quickly the brain can take in and respond to information
• Working memory — the ability to hold and manipulate information temporarily
• Verbal comprehension — understanding and using language
• Attention — the ability to focus and sustain concentration
• Memory and learning — acquiring and retaining new information
• Executive functioning — higher-order skills like planning, organizing, and problem-solving

Academic performance is also significantly affected. Several studies pointed to the long-term implications of these deficits on educational and occupational functioning, meaning the effects ripple far beyond the classroom and into future career prospects.

One study, led by Levitch and colleagues (2021), found that children treated with high dosages of therapy showed average intellectual functioning overall. However, when the researchers looked more closely at specific cognitive domains, they found below-average performance in receptive language (understanding spoken language) and mathematics. This suggests that while some core intellectual abilities might be preserved, other critical skills are significantly affected by intensive treatments. The study also revealed that a substantial proportion of young survivors—between 20% and 33%—had below-normal levels in certain areas, particularly those who had been treated with high-dose methotrexate (HD-MTX), a chemotherapy drug that put them at greater risk.

Eaton and colleagues (2020) and Roth and colleagues (2020) corroborated these findings, highlighting cognitive impairment in specific abilities. They noted that early-stage radiotherapy could act as a confounding factor (a variable that complicates the interpretation of results) for cognitive abilities, particularly in younger children whose brains are still developing rapidly.

Quality of life assessments revealed that neurocognitive impairments significantly affected the overall wellbeing of survivors. Söderström and colleagues (2022) noted that radiotherapy at an early age could confound the reduction in cognitive abilities, which in turn negatively affected quality of life. Another study by Roth and colleagues (2020) highlighted cognitive dysfunction as a notable post-treatment outcome that could contribute to a decline in quality of life.

Proton vs. Photon Radiation: Comparing Treatment Impacts

One of the most important findings of this review concerns the type of radiation therapy used to treat pediatric brain tumors.

Photon radiotherapy (XRT) is the traditional form of radiation therapy. It uses high-energy X-rays to kill cancer cells, but it also exposes healthy brain tissue to radiation along its path, potentially causing significant damage.

Proton beam therapy (PRT) is a newer technology that delivers radiation more precisely. Protons deposit most of their energy directly at the tumor site, minimizing radiation exposure to surrounding healthy tissues—especially sensitive areas such as the hippocampus, which is vital for memory.

The study by Child and colleagues (2021), which included 88 patients, found that children treated with proton radiotherapy generally showed better neurocognitive and academic long-term outcomes compared to those who received photon radiotherapy. The study revealed that individuals who have survived pediatric brain tumors are most susceptible to cognitive and scholastic challenges, with proton radiation therapy presenting a lower level of risk compared to photon radiation therapy.

However, there's an important caveat. Even among children who received proton therapy, the greatest cognitive damage was noted after craniospinal irradiation (CSI)—radiation delivered to the entire brain and spinal cord, which is often necessary for tumors that can spread through the cerebrospinal fluid, such as medulloblastomas.

In fact, the Child study found that children who received focal (targeted) proton radiation performed at an age-appropriate level, suggesting positive overall results when radiation can be limited to just the tumor area. The focal group demonstrated strong scores across multiple cognitive measures, while the craniospinal irradiation group showed significant deficits.

To put this in perspective, consider these data from the Child study comparing focal proton therapy versus craniospinal irradiation with protons:

• Full Scale IQ (FSIQ): Focal group = 94, CSI group = 77.5
• Verbal Comprehension: Focal group = 99.5, CSI group = 84.3
• Processing Speed: Focal group = 82.95, CSI group = 72.8
• Working Memory: Focal group = 97, CSI group = 81.9
• Verbal Learning: Focal group = 97, CSI group = 85.4

These numbers represent standard scores where the average for the general population is 100, with a standard deviation of 15. Scores between 85 and 115 are considered average, so the CSI group scores in the 72-85 range indicate significant cognitive impact.

Newer Therapies: MEK Inhibitors and Targeted Treatments

Beyond radiation, the review examined newer, targeted treatment approaches that are changing how certain pediatric brain tumors are managed.

MEK inhibitors, such as trametinib, are becoming a standard treatment option for pediatric low-grade glioma (pLGG), particularly in cases where tumors are refractory (resistant) to conventional therapies like radiotherapy. These medications work by targeting the MAPK/ERK pathway, a cellular signaling cascade involved in tumor growth and survival.

However, the review raises an important concern: while MEK inhibitors show promise in controlling tumor progression, they may also have significant neurocognitive effects. Research indicates that patients treated with MEK inhibitors can experience cognitive impairments, particularly in areas such as processing speed, attention, and working memory.

The researchers note that these effects, although less well understood than those caused by radiation therapy, point to the importance of closely monitoring neurocognitive functioning in children undergoing MEK inhibitor treatment. While MEK inhibitors may not induce the same degree of widespread neurotoxicity as radiotherapy, their impact on specific cognitive domains could still be significant—especially given the age and developmental stage of the pediatric population.

The review also discusses tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), another class of targeted therapy. TKIs can reduce tumor size by up to 60% in certain pediatric brain tumors, offering an alternative to traditional therapies such as chemotherapy that have significant long-term effects. These drugs target specific molecular pathways involved in cancer cell growth while limiting systemic toxicity.

Inside the Studies: A Closer Look at the Research Data

The 14 studies included in this review varied significantly in their design, patient populations, and outcome measures. Here are some of the key details from the major studies:

Child et al. (2021): This study followed 88 patients (58 male, 30 female) with a median age of 6.0 years at diagnosis. Patients were divided into those receiving focal proton radiation (43 patients) and those receiving craniospinal irradiation (45 patients). The follow-up period ranged from 1 to 4 years. Tumor locations included supratentorial (upper brain) and infratentorial (lower brain) regions. As described above, the focal group performed significantly better than the CSI group across all cognitive measures.

Helligsoe et al. (2023): This large study followed 161 survivors (74 male, 87 female) with a median age of 9.1 years at diagnosis. Patients were categorized into three groups: focal radiation (29 patients), whole-brain irradiation (WBI, 30 patients), and no treatment (102 patients). The follow-up period was 5 years, with a mean follow-up age of 24.3 years. Tumor locations were diverse, including the cerebellum (69 cases), cerebrum (32), supratentorial central area (12), hypothalamus or pituitary region (18), brain stem (12), optic nerve or chiasma (10), and pineal gland (8). The study found that childhood brain tumor survivors frequently experience neurocognitive deficits, diminished quality of life, and a significant burden of symptoms—but importantly, these problems may not be directly linked to each other, suggesting a complex relationship.

Tonning Olsson et al. (2024): This study followed 151 survivors (88 male, 63 female) with a median age of 8.4 years at diagnosis over 3 years. The study included a variety of tumor types: ependymomas and choroid plexus tumors (13 cases), astrocytomas (64), intracranial and intraspinal embryonal tumors (21), other gliomas (13), other specified intracranial neoplasms (35), and germ cell tumors (1). The researchers found that survivors demonstrated substantial decreases in neurocognitive scores, independent of the type of therapy they received. Lower cognitive function was connected to male sex and tumor placement, although there was no evidence of faster cognitive decline. Survivors who underwent whole-brain radiation therapy, targeted cranial radiation therapy, chemotherapy, surgery, or received a ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt (a device implanted to drain excess cerebrospinal fluid) exhibited the most rapid decline.

Levitch et al. (2021): This study examined 51 survivors with a median age of 6.41 years at diagnosis, followed for 6-10 years (mean follow-up age 11.1 years). Tumors were supratentorial in 21 patients and infratentorial in 30. The study found that young survivors demonstrated consistent intellectual performance over time. However, 20-33% of children experienced below-normal levels in specific cognitive domains, particularly those treated with high-dose methotrexate (HD-MTX).

Eaton et al. (2020): This study included 59 young children with a median age of 2.5 years at treatment, followed for a mean of 6.7 years (mean follow-up age 9.1 years). The patient population included 22 children with ependymoma and 7 with medulloblastoma, among others. Of those who received proton radiation therapy, 15 were male and 25 were female (though the breakdown suggests some data granularity in the original study). The study demonstrated that the quality of life of young children who receive proton therapy for brain tumors varies greatly and is significantly affected by the severity of neurological complications.

The Psychological and Social Toll: Beyond Cognition

The cognitive deficits experienced by survivors are only part of the picture. This review highlighted that neurocognitive impairment significantly affects the psychological wellbeing of pediatric brain tumor survivors in profound ways.

Psychiatric disorders are common. Studies have shown that survivors often experience anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) related to their experiences with cancer and treatment. The psychological burden can be further exacerbated by cognitive deficits—difficulties in learning and memory affect academic success and social interactions, contributing to feelings of isolation and frustration.

The review specifically identified the following psychosocial impacts among survivors:

• Low self-esteem
• Depressive symptoms
• Increased suicidal ideation (thoughts about suicide)
• Challenges with emotional regulation
• Difficulty adjusting to life after treatment

Social consequences are equally profound. Survivors may struggle with social integration and face difficulties in establishing and maintaining relationships, due to both neurocognitive and psychological challenges. These difficulties are compounded by:

• Stigmatization related to their cancer history
• Challenges reintegrating into school environments
• Delays in developmental milestones, such as language and emotional regulation
• Social withdrawal and reduced participation in age-appropriate activities

The researchers also noted that survivors may experience neurological difficulties including pain, seizures, loss of sensation, and visual impairments. Medical interventions can cause impaired hearing, which is linked to poorer cognitive performance and deficits in speech and language abilities. The impact of cranial radiation on younger children can also affect speech and language development, with delayed milestones observed in some cases.

A particularly concerning finding relates to posterior fossa tumor survivors. These patients may experience a persistent deterioration in working memory over time, even when their IQ levels remain consistent 20-40 years after diagnosis. This suggests that some cognitive declines may not be immediately apparent and can progress over decades.

Clinical Implications: What This Means for Patients and Families

This systematic review has several important implications for how pediatric brain tumors are treated and how survivors are supported long-term.

First, treatment choices matter—and proton therapy offers real advantages. The consistent finding that proton radiotherapy produces better cognitive and academic outcomes than photon radiotherapy supports the continued expansion of proton therapy centers and the consideration of this approach when available. However, the review also makes clear that even proton therapy is not without risk, particularly when craniospinal irradiation is required. This underscores the importance of developing treatment protocols that minimize radiation exposure to healthy brain tissue whenever possible.

Second, the window for vulnerability is early childhood. Multiple studies confirmed that radiation therapy at a young age is a major contributor to cognitive decline. Because the central nervous system is still developing in infants and young children, they are particularly vulnerable to radiation toxicity. For this population, age-appropriate treatment protocols are essential, and alternative therapies such as chemotherapy may be preferred to limit radiation exposure. The review notes that improvement in long-term outcomes was observed in therapeutic plans that avoided delayed high-dose radiotherapy and marrow ablation chemotherapy (a type of intensive chemotherapy that destroys bone marrow before a stem cell transplant).

Third, monitoring must be lifelong and comprehensive. The finding that working memory can continue to deteriorate even 20-40 years after diagnosis, while IQ remains stable, means that survivors need ongoing neurocognitive assessments throughout their lives. These assessments should cover multiple domains, not just IQ, and should be developmentally appropriate.

Fourth, psychological support is not optional—it is essential. The elevated rates of depression, anxiety, PTSD, low self-esteem, and suicidal ideation among survivors demand that psychological screening and support be integrated into routine survivorship care. Addressing mental health is just as important as monitoring for physical late effects or tumor recurrence.

Fifth, the impact on academic and occupational trajectories cannot be ignored. Because cognitive deficits affect academic performance and, later, occupational functioning, survivors need educational support and accommodations. Early intervention with school-based support services, individualized education plans, and cognitive rehabilitation programs may help mitigate some of these challenges.

Study Limitations: What This Review Couldn't Prove

While this systematic review provides valuable insights, it is important to understand its limitations.

Heterogeneity across studies: The researchers noted significant variations in study methodologies and inclusion criteria among the 14 studies included. Different studies used different cognitive assessment tools, had different follow-up durations, and included different tumor types and treatment protocols. This heterogeneity makes direct comparisons difficult and limits the ability to draw firm conclusions about specific treatment effects.

Potential confounding factors: The review noted that early-stage radiotherapy could act as a confounding factor for cognitive abilities, particularly in younger children. This means that observed cognitive differences between treatment groups might be partially explained by the timing of radiation rather than the type of radiation alone. Similarly, factors like tumor location, hydrocephalus, the need for VP shunts, and surgical complications can independently affect cognitive outcomes, making it difficult to isolate the effects of any single treatment.

Limited generalizability: The review restricted inclusion to open-access, English-language studies published in peer-reviewed journals between 2019 and 2024. This may exclude relevant research published in other languages, in non-open-access journals, or before 2019. The findings may also not fully represent outcomes in low- and middle-income countries where treatment modalities and supportive care resources differ.

Long-term data remain incomplete: While some studies followed patients for decades, the maximum follow-up periods in the included studies varied considerably. The true lifelong trajectory of cognitive aging in these survivors—and their risk for early cognitive decline or dementia—remains uncertain.

No meta-analysis: Because of the heterogeneity across studies, a formal meta-analysis (statistical pooling of data) was not performed. This means the review provides a qualitative synthesis rather than pooled quantitative effect sizes.

Recommendations: Practical Guidance for Survivors and Families

Based on the findings of this review, here are actionable recommendations for patients, families, and healthcare providers:

1. Ask about proton therapy. If your child is diagnosed with a brain tumor and radiation is being considered, discuss with the oncology team whether proton beam therapy is an available and appropriate option. Proton therapy appears to offer better long-term cognitive outcomes than traditional photon radiation, particularly when the tumor can be treated with focal (targeted) rather than craniospinal irradiation.
2. Request baseline neurocognitive testing. Ideally, every child should have neuropsychological testing before treatment begins (when possible) and at regular intervals after treatment. This provides a baseline and allows tracking of changes over time so that interventions can be started early.
3. Advocate for school support. Children who survive brain tumors often qualify for an Individualized Education Program (IEP) or 504 Plan. These legal documents can provide classroom accommodations, extra time on tests, specialized instruction, and other supports. Parents should not wait for difficulties to appear—request these services proactively.
4. Prioritize mental health screening. Given the elevated rates of depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation among survivors, routine screening for mental health concerns should be part of every follow-up visit. If your child shows signs of depression, withdrawal, or expresses thoughts of self-harm, seek immediate professional help.
5. Watch for late-emerging problems. Remember that working memory problems can worsen years or even decades after treatment, even if IQ remains stable. Ongoing cognitive monitoring should continue into adulthood, not stop at the end of active follow-up.
6. Encourage social connection. Because survivors often struggle with social integration, parents and providers should actively facilitate social opportunities, consider social skills groups, and help survivors build peer connections that may reduce isolation.
7. Support healthy lifestyle factors. While not specifically studied in this review, general evidence suggests that physical activity, good sleep, and cognitive engagement may support brain health. Encouraging these habits early can help build cognitive reserve.
8. Stay informed about newer therapies. If your child's tumor is being treated with novel targeted therapies like MEK inhibitors, ask questions about potential neurocognitive side effects. These medications are effective but may impact processing speed, attention, and working memory—monitoring should accompany their use.

Ultimately, the researchers emphasize that increasing our understanding of the long-term effects associated with brain tumors and their treatment methods will help formulate better treatment protocols and improve survivors' quality of life. Every child who survives a brain tumor deserves not just to live, but to thrive—and that means paying as much attention to the brain's functioning after treatment as we do to eradicating the tumor itself.

The study also reminds us that the late effects of pediatric brain tumors are not isolated to any single domain—cognitive, psychological, and social challenges intersect and influence each other, affecting the survivor's overall quality of life. Tailored interventions addressing each of these areas are critical for providing holistic care and improving long-term outcomes.

Frequently Asked Questions

What long-term thinking and memory problems can childhood brain tumor survivors have?

Survivors can have lower IQ, slower processing speed, weaker working memory, attention problems, verbal comprehension difficulties, trouble with learning and memory, and poorer executive functioning. Academic performance, especially mathematics, is also affected. Problems may appear years later, so ongoing neurocognitive monitoring is recommended for all survivors.

Is proton beam therapy better than traditional radiation for saving cognition?

Yes. The review found proton beam radiotherapy offers better long-term cognitive and academic outcomes than traditional photon radiotherapy. However, even with proton therapy, significant cognitive problems can remain, especially when the whole brain and spinal cord are irradiated. Focal, targeted proton radiation to the tumor area produced age-appropriate cognitive scores in one study.

What are the cognitive effects of craniospinal irradiation with protons?

In a study of 88 patients, children who received craniospinal proton irradiation had notably lower scores in full-scale IQ, verbal comprehension, processing speed, working memory, and verbal learning compared with focal proton therapy. Their average scores ranged from about 72 to 85, which is below the normal average of 100.

Do childhood brain tumor survivors have depression or emotional problems?

Yes. The review found survivors often have low self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and increased suicidal ideation. They also may experience anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, social withdrawal, and difficulty regulating emotions. The authors emphasize that routine mental health screening and psychological support should be part of survivorship care.

Do newer targeted therapies like MEK inhibitors cause cognitive problems?

The review says MEK inhibitors, used for pediatric low-grade glioma, may cause cognitive impairments in processing speed, attention, and working memory. These side effects are less understood than radiation's effects but are still significant. Children receiving MEK inhibitors should have close neurocognitive monitoring, according to the researchers.

Can cognitive problems get worse many years after treatment ends?

Yes. In survivors of posterior fossa tumors, working memory can keep deteriorating even 20 to 40 years after diagnosis, while overall IQ may stay stable. This means some declines are not visible right away and can progress over decades. Lifelong, comprehensive neurocognitive assessments into adulthood are recommended.

Should I seek a second opinion on proton versus photon radiation for my child's pediatric brain tumor?

For a child with a brain tumor, the choice between proton and photon radiation affects long-term thinking, memory, and academic outcomes. Proton therapy has been associated with better cognitive and academic results than photon therapy, especially when radiation can be focal, but craniospinal irradiation still carries significant cognitive risks, particularly in young children. A second opinion can help confirm whether radiation is necessary, whether proton therapy is appropriate and available, and whether alternatives such as chemotherapy or MEK inhibitors might reduce late effects. Diagnostic Detectives Network provides independent expert second opinions.

Source Information

Original Article Title: Long-term neurocognitive and behavioral outcomes in survivors of pediatric brain tumors: a systematic review.

Journal: Frontiers in neuroscience

DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2025.1587059

License: CC BY (open access)

Authors: Patel T, Johar P, Kanisetti V, Talacheru S, Avinash V, Das A, Sahu S, Goyal A, Szobody MW, Sayers T, Gullapalli S, Yallapu MM, Shaikh MH, Anand N, Potter-Baker K, Gadad BS.

Publication: Frontiers in Neuroscience, Volume 19, Article 1587059

Publication Date: May 30, 2025 (Accepted April 21, 2025; Received March 3, 2025)

DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2025.1587059

Note: This patient-friendly article is based on peer-reviewed research published in an open-access journal. The original article is distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), which permits its use, distribution, and reproduction with proper attribution. The patient summary was created to make the research findings accessible to a broader audience, but it does not replace the original peer-reviewed publication or professional medical advice. Patients and families should always consult with their healthcare providers regarding treatment decisions.